By Francis Dvornik, © The American Ecclesiastical Review, The Catholic University of America Press, Washington, D.C.
The most important and the most controversial
point in all endeavors for rapprochement of other Churches with the
Roman Catholic Church is undoubtedly the question of the Roman Primacy
in Christianity. The denial of this prerogative to the Bishop of Rome by
the Orthodox is, perhaps, the only serious obstacle on the way to
reunion of the Eastern Churches with the Roman Church. The many polemic
writings issued in the East and in the West from the eleventh century,
denying or defending the primary position of the Roman Bishop, have, so
far, failed to produce the desired effect on either side. Mutual
distrust caused mostly by political divisions and the different
development of the Church's organization in East and West, manifested
particularly from the eleventh century on, have often embittered the
minds of the controversialists and prevented the faithful on both sides
from considering the problem without prejudice.
Instead of
repeating all the known arguments pro and contra, let us try the
historical method and examine the position which the Byzantine Church
took on this problem from earliest times on up to the period when the
estrangement between the Eastern and Western parts of mediaeval
Christianity became apparent and began to envenom the atmosphere in
which the Churches had to live.
The Roman Bishops, from the
beginning, derived their prestige from the fact that St. Peter, the
chief of the Apostles, had died and was buried in Rome. Although some
think that no absolute evidence for Peter's stay in Rome can be quoted
from before the last quarter of the second century, that is, from around
the year 180 (from the letter of Dionysius, Bishop of Corinth, to Rome,
and from the testimony of Irenaeus), the Eastern Church had never
denied the fact that St. Peter had stayed and had died in Rome. Not one
of the numerous cities in the East which had been visited by Peter had
ever boasted of the honor of providing his last resting place, and no
ancient writer denies that Peter went to Rome. Although this is only an
argument from silence, it is still very powerful, and it adds
considerable weight to the testimonies mentioned above and to the
numerous evidences from the third and the fourth centuries.
Up
until the fourth century, however, the Roman Bishops had another reason
for feeling they should be regarded as the first in the Christian
commonwealth. Their See was, at the same time, the residence of the
Emperors and the capital of the Roman Empire. It is very often forgotten
that the early Church found a model for her organization in the
political divisions of the Roman Empire rather than in the apostolic
tradition. This form of Church organization was initiated by the
Apostles themselves, who, for practical reasons, had to respect and to
use the organization they found in the world in which they lived. They
started preaching in the capitals of the major cities of the Roman
provinces because there they found important Jewish communities, and it
was from these centers that Christianity spread through the provinces
and to other communities.
The future organization of the Church
was thus foreshadowed by the Apostles when Peter addressed letters to
the communities of Galatia, Pontus, Cappadocia, and Asia, and Paul to
the capitals of the political provinces of the Empire (Rome, Ephesus,
Corinth, Thessalonika). A passage in the second Epistle to the
Corinthians (II Cor. 1:1) indicates clearly that these letters were
meant to be sent by the bishops of each capital to other cities of the
province. Although this does not mean that the bishops of these cities
received from the Apostles a superior place in the original hierarchy of
the Church, it was natural that the bishops of the capital of a civil
province should enjoy a certain prestige over the bishops of other
provincial cities. So it happened that from the outset the Church was
obliged, for reasons of practical expediency deriving from the political
and economic conditions of the Roman Empire, to adapt its
ecclesiastical organization to the political divisions of the Empire.1
The
same factor also influenced the origins and the organization of the
Synods. When it became necessary to discuss important problems arising
from the spread of Christianity throughout the different provinces and
from the development of doctrine, the meeting places of the bishops was
again dictated, not by the consideration that the See of any particular
city was founded by an Apostle, but rather by administrative expediency.
The political centers of the provinces were the natural places for such
meetings, and the initiative of convoking the local Synods and the
privilege of presiding over its debates was left to the bishops of the
provincial capitals, called Metropoles. Such was the origin of the
metropolitan organization. It has also been shown recently that the
sessions of the Synods were held according to the same rules which were
observed at the meetings of the Roman Senate and of the local municipal
assemblies.2
Also, the
supra-metropolitan organization which resulted in the formation of the
first Patriarchates of Rome, Alexandria and Antioch, owes its origin,
not to the apostolic foundation of these cities, but to the fact that
they were the most important cities of the Empire, the capitals of
groups of provinces. Rome was more privileged in this way, because it
was the capital of the Empire and the residence of the Emperors. Owing
to the intimate connection of all Italian cities with the city of Rome
by which they were regarded only as municipia, the Bishops of the
capital of Italy and of the Empire were able to preserve direct
jurisdiction over the whole of Italy, without the intermediary of the
Metropolitans of the provinces, into which Italy was subdivided.
This
development in the organization of the Church was sanctioned by the
First Oecumenical Council of Nicea in 325. Canon Six of the Council also
acknowledged the rights of the Roman See over the whole of Italy, and
the Fathers suggested that the exercise of these rights by the Bishop of
Rome over Italy was a precedent that should serve as a good example to
the Bishop of Alexandria and, partially, also to the Bishop of Antioch.
Thus even the supra-metropolitan organization found its basic sanction
in the Council of Nicaea. Even Rome adapted itself to the principle that
the ecclesiastical organization should follow the political division of
the Empire. When Italy was divided into two political dioceses with the
capitals of Rome and Milan, Milan became automatically a metropolis
with jurisdiction over the North of Italy, and the direct jurisdiction
of the Bishop of Rome was limited to the provinces of central and
southern Italy, called suburbicariae.3
The
organization of Christianity in other Western provinces also followed
the rule of accommodation to the political division of the Empire. The
prestige of the Roman Bishop in Gaul, Africa, Spain, and Illyricum was
great from the beginning, however, thanks not only to the circumstance
that many of the first missionaries there came from Italy and Rome, and
that Rome was the center of the Empire and the official residence of the
Emperors, but also because of the veneration in which young Christian
communities in the West held St. Peter, the founder of the Roman See and
the chief of the Apostles, whose successors the Bishops of Rome claimed
to be.
It should be pointed out, however, that the idea of the
Roman Bishops' direct succession from the Apostle Peter had to undergo a
certain evolution before it acquired its full meaning. The early
Christians regarded the Apostles as universal teachers charged by Christ
with spreading His doctrine throughout the world. They venerated them
as founders of the churches in the cities where they had preached the
new Faith, and where they had resided for some time, but they did not
count them as the first Bishops of these cities. The lists of Bishops in
the cities where the Apostles had worked were headed, not by the
Apostles, but by the first disciples appointed by them to continue their
work.
This custom was practiced also by Rome in the first
period of her Christian life. The earliest known list of Roman Bishops
given by St. Irenaeus of Lyon (who died in 202) designates not only
Peter, but also Paul, as founder of the Church of Rome.4
As the first Bishop of Rome is designated Linus, who was ordained by
the Apostles. It is possible that Irenaeus of Lyon used the Roman
catalogue of Bishops established by Hegesippus.5
If he did, this would be another indication that what he said
concerning Peter and Paul was in the oldest Roman tradition. Hippolytus'
list likewise does not count Peter or Paul among the Roman Bishops.
Although Pope Callixtus (217-22) is said by Tertullian6
to have connected the origins of Christianity in Rome only with Peter
(since he is the first to have used the famous passage of Matt. 16:18
f.), the custom of attributing the origins of Roman Christianity to
Peter and Paul and not to designate Peter as the first Roman Bishop
continued to be observed in the West, in some cases, up to the fifth
century.
The so-called Liberian Catalogue from the year 3547
is the first which introduces the practice which became general, of
attributing the origins of Roman Christianity to Peter only, and to
place his name at the head of the Roman Bishops. This failure to stress
Peter's function as founder and as first Bishop of the Roman Church
seems to indicate that, as long as Rome was the capital of the Empire
and the Imperial residence, its privileged position in Christianity was
sufficiently guaranteed because all ecclesiastical organization was
modeled according to the political divisions of the Empire.
This,
of course, does not mean that the Romans did not regard the activity of
Peter in Rome as the main reason for their primacy in the young Church.
When, however, Constantinople became the residence of the Emperors, it
seemed necessary to lay more stress on the Apostolic and Petrine
character of the Roman See. From the middle of the fourth century on,
the Roman See was often called in the West, simply the See of Peter, and
this use became general also in Rome during the time of Pope Damasus
(336-89) who emphasized further the apostolic character of his See,
calling it simply: sedes apostolica. From that time on, this usage became a general rule not only in Rome, but also in the whole of the West.8
This
stressing of the apostolicity of the Roman See in the West is easy to
understand. There was in the whole West only one See which could claim
an apostolic origin, and that was the Roman See.
In the Eastern
part of the Empire the situation was different. There, several important
Sees could claim the honor of having been founded by an Apostle: these
were Jerusalem, Antioch, Alexandria and Ephesus. Besides these, less
important Sees in Asia Minor and Greece were at least visited by the
Apostles, according to the Acts and apocryphal writings on the
activities of the Apostles, which began to appear as early as the second
century. This circumstance naturally reduced the prestige in the East
of the claim to apostolicity, and contributed to the easy victory gained
for the principle of adaptation to the political division of the
Empire. In reality, we find up to the fifth century only a few instances
in which the apostolic character of those cities is mentioned.
Such
was the situation in the Eastern part of the Empire, and things must be
viewed in this light. That the Church had adapted the organization of
its hierarchy to the territorial division of the Roman Empire, and to
its administrative system, is generally recognized. But not all are
ready to admit the logical consequences of this, or to consider the
further evolution of the Church's organization, especially the rise of
Constantinople, in the light of this fact. However, only in this light
can the first conflict between Rome and Constantinople, which is often
interpreted as an attempt at a denial of the primacy of Roman Bishops in
the Church by the Easterners, be explained and understood.
This
conflict is said to have arisen in 381 when the Synod of
Constantinople, later accepted as the Second Oecumenical Council,
exempted the Bishop of Constantinople from the jurisdiction of the
metropolitan of Heracleia, and conferred upon him a rank second only to
that of the Bishop of Rome, because Constantinople had become the
residential city of the Emperor.
It is believed that the
reaction in Rome to this innovation was very strong. In reality this was
not the case. Originally the Council was not meant to be oecumenical,
because only the prelates of the Eastern part of the Empire were invited
to assist by the Emperor Theodosius. The original intentions of the
conciliar Fathers were to reorganize the ecclesiastical affairs of the
Eastern dioceses and to legislate for them alone. The ecclesiastical
situation in the East was disturbed by the uncanonical interventions of
Peter II of Alexandria (373-80/81) in the affairs of Antioch and
Constantinople where he wanted to install prelates of his own choice.
His intervention in Constantinople was particularly glaring. He sent
there a number of Egyptian Bishops escorted by a mob of Alexandrian
sailors and ordered them to consecrate and install his candidate
Maximus, a philosopher, in place of the lawful titulary St. Gregory of
Nazianzus. The Emperor intervened and the Synod of 381 condemned this
provocative action which manifested the intention of the Bishop of
Alexandria to establish his supremacy over the whole East. In order to
break the hold of Alexandria over the Eastern dioceses for good, it was
decided to give to Constantinople the precedence over other Eastern
churches.
Because the principle of adaptation to the political
divisions of the Empire was the leading and decisive factor in Church
organization, especially in the East, and stressed again at the Council
of 381, and because Constantinople had become a residential city, the
Canon promoting its Bishop encountered no opposition among the Eastern
prelates. Peter's brother and successor, Timothy of Alexandria, had to
swallow this bitter pill and he signed the decisions of the Council, its
Creed and its Canon. The Bishop of Alexandria thus ceded the right of
precedence, which he had hitherto possessed in the East, to the Bishop
of the Imperial capital.9
When
all this is borne in mind, it becomes clear that this first promotion
of the Bishopric of Constantinople was in no way inspired by an
anti-Roman bias. Because the Council was originally meant to be the
gathering of Eastern Bishops and had to deal with Eastern religious
affairs, the decisions of the Council were not even communicated
officially to Pope Damasus, as Leo I himself later testified.10
The provisions of the Council were, however, known soon afterwards in
Rome and, because the principle of accommodation to the political
division of the Empire was) at that time, still accepted in Rome, Pope
Damasus made no objection to this promotion of the Imperial city,
although Alexandria used to be in very close contact with Rome. In this
way, this first so-called conflict between Byzantium and Rome can be
satisfactorily explained. The Bishop of Rome continued to be regarded as
the first Bishop of the Empire, the head of the Church.
More
serious would seem to be the second conflict between Byzantium and Rome
which originated at the Council of Chalcedon in 451, when the Fathers
voted, in the absence of the Papal legates, the so-called Twenty-eighth
Canon confirming Constantinople as having second place in Church
organization, and giving to her Bishops direct jurisdiction over the
dioceses of Thrace, Pontus and Asia.11
It is known that the Papal legates protested against this vote and that
Pope Leo I (440-61) rejected this Canon with sharp criticism. The
question now arises as to whether or not it was the intention of the
Eastern Fathers really to question the primacy of the Bishop of Rome in
making the Bishop of Constantinople equal to him.
We have again
to examine first why it was the Eastern Fathers thought it necessary to
reaffirm the leading position of the Bishop of Constantinople in the
East. One of the reasons again was the attitude of the Alexandrian
Bishops. Although they had accepted the decision of the Council of 381,
they still continued their aggressive pursuit of power in the Eastern
Church. Bishop Theophilus of Alexandria (385-412) intrigued against St.
John Chrysostom, Bishop of Constantinople, and succeeded in obtaining a
decree from the Emperor which drove the saintly bishop into exile
unjustly. His nephew and successor, St. Cyril (412-44), accused the
Bishop of Constantinople, Nestorius (428-31), of heresy and obtained his
condemnation and deposition at the Council of Ephesus (431). It is now
generally accepted that Cyril accomplished this by means which were very
questionable, and many scholars have doubts as to whether or not
Nestorius' teaching was really heretical.
It is well known how
Dioscorus, Bishop of Alexandria and promoter of monophysism, once more
humiliated Constantinople in allowing her Bishop, the saintly Flavian
(441-49), to be condemned by the irregular and ill-famed Synod of
Ephesus, justly called the Robber Synod (Latrocinium). Flavian was treated so badly by Dioscorus' men that he died from the injuries. 12
From
all this it was evident to the Orthodox Fathers that Alexandria, then
in the hands of an heretical Bishop, should not be allowed to continue
in her pretensions to the leadership of the East. This could be done
only as a result of further promotion of Constantinople, confirmed by a
new Council which was, this time, oecumenical from the beginning.
On
the other hand, we must not forget that, in order to obtain general
approval for such a measure, the Fathers could not afford to alienate
the Pope, who had played a prominent role during the final stages of the
dogmatic struggles with the monophysites of Alexandria, and whose
representatives were still present at Chalcedon. It would, therefore, be
illogical to suppose that the Fathers intended to deny the primacy of
the Bishop of Rome, a primacy which had just made itself particularly
apparent in the triumph of orthodoxy at Chalcedon.13
This
primacy had been once more clearly proclaimed at Chalcedon by the
legates when they quoted the Roman version of Canon Six of Nicaea. The
old Latin translation prefaced the wording of the Canon as follows: Romana ecclesia semper habuit primatum. Although
the Roman version differed from the original, also read at the same
last session of the Council by the Greeks, the Fathers did not protest
against such a glaring declaration of the primacy of the Roman Church,
and did not even question the authenticity of the Roman version of the
Canon and its preface. 14
Moreover,
the fact that the Fathers of the Council, the Patriarch of
Constantinople Anatolius, and the Emperor Marcian himself insisted in
their letters that the Pope should sign the Canon is sufficient
indication that the conciliar Fathers saw in its wording no offensive
against Rome.15
In order to
understand the negative position of the legates and of the Pope after
the vote of this Canon, we have to consider that the Canon gave to
Constantinople more privileges than did Canon Three of the Council of
381. The legates and the Pope were ready to accept the idea that the See
of Constantinople, because it was the residence of the Emperor, should
be given precedence over the two other Eastern Sees of Alexandria and
Antioch. To this extent they could pay lip service to the old principle
of adaptation to the political organization of the Empire which was
still, at that time, generally accepted. Canon Three of the Council of
381 granted, in reality, to the See of Constantinople, only honorary
precedence, but did not extend the jurisdiction of that See. The
delegates also accepted Canons Nine and Seventeen of Chalcedon, which
granted to the Bishops of Constantinople a status of concurrent instance
of appellations, because it did not substantially alter their position.16
Canon
Twenty-eight of Chalcedon, however, advanced the See of Constantinople
to a position of great power in the East, giving her jurisdiction over
the minor dioceses of the Empire (Thrace, Pontus, and Asia) as well as
over the new missionary lands. This amounted to the creation of an
immense, new, ecclesiastical power in the East which, because it had the
support of the Emperors, could become exceedingly dangerous to the
unity of the Church and to the primacy of Rome.
What would
certainly have aroused any Westerner against such a measure was the fact
that the Fathers, although guaranteeing in the same Canon Rome's
ancient privileges, had completely neglected to stress either the
apostolic character of that See or the fact that the Pope was the
successor of Peter, the Prince of the Apostles. Because of this Pope Leo
I refused to sign the Canon and opposed the principle that there should
be correlation between the rank of a city in the civil administration
and the place of that city's See in the ecclesiastical hierarchy. He
insisted, on the other hand, that the rank of a See should be determined
by the principles of the apostolic character of its foundation. Thus
Rome has primacy in the Church, not because she was a capital of the
Empire, but because of the Petrine origin of the Roman See. Alexandria
is second in rank because she was founded by Peter's disciple, St. Mark.
Antioch is the third in the hierarchy because of her connection with
St. Peter and because the name "Christians" first arose there.
Constantinople has no special position in the Church hierarchy because
she was not founded by an Apostle. Moreover, this promotion of
Constantinople contradicted the Sixth Canon of the Council of Nicaea
which had allotted the first three places in the Church to Rome,
Alexandria and Antioch.17
In
this way the argument of the apostolicity and of the Petrine tradition
was introduced by Leo I into the disputes between the East and West and
remained, for centuries to come, the main argument used by the Roman
canonists against the pretensions of Constantinople to a privileged
position in the Church.
Leo's fears are easily understood. Rome
had lost her great prerogative as the center of the Empire and the
residential city of the Emperors, and had retained only her apostolic
character and her successorship to St. Peter as justification for her
claim to the primacy in the Church. Leo the Great foresaw correctly that
the new status of the See of Constantinople could, in the future,
endanger the rightful claims of Rome.
It is most unfortunate
that the Eastern Fathers who had put together Canon Twenty-eight showed a
lack of comprehension of the anxiety of Rome. The East was still
greatly influenced by the principle of adaptation to the new political
situation, and could not see beyond its immediate horizon. When we
examine the Acts of the Councils of Ephesus and of Chalcedon and other
documents of this period, we are surprised to notice that only in a few
instances the Easterners mentioned the apostolic character of the main
Sees, and when they did so, it was without emphasis.18
Had they respected the apostolic and Petrine character of Rome in the
drawing up of the contested Canon, the Pope would have probably been
induced to accept it.
On the other hand, Pope Leo, in his
anxiety to preserve the privileges of his See, seems to have overlooked
the fact that the Easterners still looked upon Rome as the Imperial
city, as is evident from declarations made by some of the Bishops at
Chalcedon. To them, the fact that Rome was the first capital and the
foundation of the Empire was sufficient proof that the primacy in the
Church belonged to her Bishops, and it would so remain as long as the
Roman Empire, of which Constantinople was now the Imperial residence,
endured.
The Pope's representative, Julian of Kios, was aware of
this, and he advised the Pope to approve the decision of Chalcedon
regarding the See of Constantinople. This could have been done in a
document that stressed the apostolic character of the Roman See and her
primacy because she had been founded by Peter whom the Lord had chosen
to be the head of the Church. Such a declaration would most probably
have been accepted by the Easterners, because they seem to have been
aware of the mistake they had made in not mentioning the apostolic
character of the Roman See. Perhaps, in order to give the Pope some
satisfaction, they called Rome an Apostolic See in the letters in which
they asked the Pope to confirm the Canon. Anatolius of Constantinople
and the Pope came, at the end, to a kind of "compromise." Although
Constantinople continued de facto to use the right accorded to
her Bishops by the Council, Canon Twenty-eight was not included in the
collection of Eastern Canon Law. It appeared only in the sixth century,
in the Syntagma of Fourteen Titles.19
One
thing is securely established, namely, that the Byzantine Church did
not intend to question the primacy of Rome in the Church. In spite of
what happened, Rome continued to be regarded as the superior of
Constantinople and as the first See in the Church. The conflict can be
explained by the clash of two principles in the organization of the
Church—accommodation to the secular situation and the apostolic origin.
The failure of the Chalcedonian Fathers to find a compromise between
these two principles marks the beginning of a long struggle over the
apostolicity, which became the source of new bitterness in the relations
between East and West. It is symptomatic that Canon Twenty-eight was
officially accepted in the West only at the Fourth Lateran Council of
1215, when the See of Constantinople was occupied by a Latin Patriarch,
following the conquest of the city by the Latins.20 This, of course, did not contribute to a better understanding between the Orthodox and the Latins.
The
friendly relations between Constantinople and Rome were seriously
disrupted for the first time during the so-called Acacian Schism
(484-519) when Pope Felix excommunicated Patriarch Acacius because he
was sponsoring a compromise between the heretical monophysites and the
Orthodox doctrine of Chalcedon, proposed by the Emperor Heraclius in his
decree called Henoticon (482). During this rift, Pope Gelasius
(492-496) went even further than Leo. He was the first to assert clearly
the primacy of Rome and her jurisdiction over the entire Church. He not
only repudiated Canon Twenty-eight, but he refused to count even
Constantinople among the major Sees of Christendom. His language was too
passionate for the Easterners, and Gelasius complained that in their
letters, they spoke of him as proud, arrogant and stubborn. But, in
spite of this, the Easterners were impressed by the Pope's emphasis on
the apostolic character of his See, and by the deductions he made from
the fact that he was the successor of St. Peter. In their correspondence
with the Pope, the apostolicity of the Roman See was stressed more and
more.
On the other hand, one can also see that, although willing
to acknowledge the special position of Rome in the Church, they found
some of the claims made by Gelasius strange and contrary to tradition.
Their sharp criticism of Gelasius' attitude reveals their determination
not to surrender the autonomous status of their Church, although
compromised in the eyes of Rome as having supported an heretical creed.21
The reconciliation was made in the reign of Pope Hormisdas (514-23) when the Eastern Bishops signed the so-called Libellus Hormisdae
which contained a clear definition of the Roman primacy in matters of
faith. It is an important document recalling the promise of the Lord
given to Peter (Matt. 16:18 f.) and declaring that "in the
Apostolic See the Catholic religion has always been kept immaculate" and
that in it "persists the total and true strength of the Christian
religion."22 Some of the Eastern prelates may have signed the Libellus
with mixed feelings, for never before had they read such a clear
definition of Roman primacy, but even the Patriarch John signed it. They
objected only to certain declarations of Gelasius which threatened the
autonomous status of their Church. The Libellus dealt only with questions of dogma in which Rome had always proved to be a staunch defender of the Orthodox faith.
Interesting
also in this respect is the declaration of John's successor Epiphanius
in his letter to Pope Hormisdas: "It is my greatest desire to be united
with you and to embrace the divine doctrines which have been entrusted
to your holy See by the blessed and holy disciples and God's Apostles,
especially by Peter, the head of the Apostles, and to esteem nothing
more than them."23
At the same
time the Patriarch and the Emperor Justinian, in referring in their
letters to the four general Councils, had persuaded Pope Hormisdas to
accept implicitly Canon Three of the Council of 381, which gave the See
of Constantinople second rank in the hierarchy of the Church.
On the other hand, Justinian, when sanctioning in his Novel 131,224
the rank of the Patriarchs, expressed very clearly that the Bishop of
Constantinople was inferior to the Bishop of Rome. This is important,
and contradicts the statements of the mediaeval Greek controversialists
who argued that because Rome was called the Old City, and Constantinople
the New City, Rome outranked Constantinople only in age and in no other
respect. This thesis was also rejected in the twelfth century by the
famous Byzantine canonist Zonaras, who bases his rejection on the
wording of Justinian's Novel 131.25
Another
incident which occurred under Pope Pelagius (579-90) is generally
interpreted as a denial by the Byzantines of the primacy of Rome. The
Pope was scandalized when he learned that the Patriarch of
Constantinople, John IV the Faster (582-95), was using the title of
Oecumenical Patriarch. The Pope translated the word "oecumenical" by the
word "universal" and asked the Patriarch to renounce a title which did
not belong to him. The Patriarch did not abandon the use of this title
and Pope Boniface III seems to have complained to the Emperor Phocas in
607 that "the Church of Constantinople declared itself to be the first
of all the Churches."
The Emperor Phocas issued a degree stating
that "the Apostolic See of the blessed Apostle Peter" should always be
"the head of all Churches."26 This decree is a new confirmation of Justinian's Novel
131. Boniface's complaint and Phocas' decree would appear to have been
provoked by the use of the "oecumenical" title. This title, however, did
not mean that the Patriarch using it pretended to have power over the
whole Church. It had already been used by Bishop Dioscorus of Alexandria
in 449, and by many other bishops, and was also given by the Greeks to
Popes Leo I, Hormisdas, and Agapetus. Justinian gave this same title to
the five Patriarchs in order to express their supreme power within the
borders of their own Patriarchates. Thus, the use of this title by the
Patriarchs of Constantinople does not mean that they intended to usurp
the power over the whole Church and to supersede Rome.
In the
meantime, the passage of events had made the Byzantines increasingly
aware of the growing importance which the idea of apostolicity had in
their relationship with Rome. Many scholars have supposed that because
of the impression which the display of the apostolic character of the
Roman See had made during the Acacian Schism in Byzantium, the Greeks
had invented the legend that their See was also founded by an Apostle,
St. Andrew, the brother of Peter. Because St. Andrew was the first to be
invited by the Lord to join Him, and because he had introduced his
brother Peter to the Master, he, Andrew, should be regarded as the first
of the Apostles, and his successors in Byzantium at least equal, if not
superior, to the successors of Peter in Rome.
If this could be
verified, it would amount to a clear negation of Roman primacy in the
Church by the Byzantines. I have examined this story thoroughly in my
book The Idea of Apostolicity in Byzantium and the Legend of the Apostle Andrew27
and came to the conclusion that there is no trace of it in Byzantine or
Western tradition before the end of the seventh or the beginning of the
eighth centuries. During this time the Byzantines were still clinging
to the old principle of accommodation to the political situation, and
the fact that their city was the Imperial residence was regarded as
sufficient to assure it a privileged position in the Church.
However,
they were impressed by the idea that a See which was to play such a
prominent role should be connected with the Apostles, the universal
teachers, whose doctrine the Patriarchs should explain and promote. In
reality, we find some instances in the seventh century in which the See
of Constantinople is called "apostolic." It is reasonable to see in this
the influence of the Roman emphasis on the apostolic character of the
Church in general and the Roman See in particular. It should be
stressed, however, that this custom was not originated by the story of
the Apostle Andrew as founder of its bishopric, because the Andrew story
was then not yet known in Byzantium.
Early Syriac, Armenian and
Coptic traditions show, however, that the apostolic character was
attributed to the See of Constantinople because this See was the heir of
Ephesus, and, thus, of the Apostle John, when the jurisdiction which
the See of St. John had exercised over Asia Minor was transferred to
Constantinople.28 This is also confirmed by the declaration of the Patriarch Ignatius at a synod in 861,29 and seems also to be alluded to by the Patriarch Photius in his letter to the Armenians.
Anyhow,
the attribution of an apostolic character to the See of Constantinople
reveals that the Byzantines were making some interesting progress
towards the Roman conception of leading principles in Church
organization. This progress was accelerated by the controversy over the
image worship. The iconoclastic Emperors were stressing the priestly
character of the imperium. Because of this they were inclined to exalt
the position of the Emperors in religious matters, at the expense of the
"sacerdotium," particularly since the Patriarchs of the truly apostolic
Sees did not favor the iconoclastic doctrine. It is the last glaring
instance of the intervention of Emperors over religious, nay, doctrinal
matters. It was a radical application of the old Hellenistic political
philosophy according to which the Emperors, not the Patriarchs, were the
representatives of God on earth, and, thus, had not only the right, but
also the duty to watch over the purity of the faith and care for the
true worship. The early Church had accepted the basic principles of this
political conception, the only one which was known, but defended always
the thesis that the definition of the Christian teaching was the
privilege not of the "imperium" but of the "sacerdotium."
And so
it came about that the apostolic idea became a weapon for the defenders
of the image cult against the intervention of the Emperors in the
doctrinal field. The Pope was exalted by the defenders of image worship
as the heir of Peter, the head of the Apostles, and the repository of
pure doctrine. The Iconoclastic Council of 754 was condemned by Stephen
the Younger in 760, for example, because the Acts had not been approved
by the Pope.30
More outspoken
were St. Theodore the Studite (759-826) and his followers. Theodore
called the Pope simply "apostolicus," using the title given to the Popes
in the West, and which he had probably learned from his correspondence
with the monks of the Greek monasteries in Rome.31
He recognized the Emperor's right to convoke a Council as it had been
practiced so far, but in several councils he insisted on the preeminent
position of the Pope. If the convocation of a Council was not desired by
the Emperor, he recommended that the case be submitted to the Roman
Bishop for a decision. However, he extended the apostolic character to
all Patriarchs, even that of Constantinople, because they were the
successors of the Apostles. "This is the patriarchic authority of the
Church; these have jurisprudence over divine dogmas," exclaimed
Theodore. Of course, among these five Patriarchs, Theodore always gave
the first place to the Bishop of Rome.32
This
is another milestone in the recognition of Roman primacy in Byzantium.
In spite of this, however, the official Byzantine Church still clung to
her traditional concepts. This is illustrated particularly by the Acts
of the Seventh Oecumenical Council. Pope Hadrian (772-95) sent a letter
to the Empress Irene and her son Constantine which was read during the
Synod. It is very significant that many passages which clearly express
the primacy of the Roman See have been omitted in the Greek version read
at the Synod. The Pope's quotation of Our Lord's words to St. Peter (Matt.
16:18 f.) are passed over. Only one short allusion to these words is
left but the name of Paul is added to the name of Peter, whenever the
Pope mentioned the foundation of the Roman See by Peter. The protest of
the Pope against the use of the title: "Oecumenical Patriarch" by the
Bishop of Constantinople was also suppressed in the Greek version, and
the Pope's criticism of Tarasius' elevation to patriarchal dignity,
although he was a layman, was likewise left out. Similar changes were
made by the Greeks in the letter sent by the Pope to Patriarch Tarasius.33
Of
course, the primacy of the Pope in the Church is not only not denied,
but is actually very clearly expressed. All this shows, however, that
the Byzantines, although willing to recognize and accept the Roman
primacy fundamentally, were anxious to preserve the autonomous status of
the Church and were not willing to allow the Popes to interfere
directly with their customs and usages. This is important and must be
borne in mind whenever we examine the attitude of the Byzantines towards
Rome. On the whole, however, we have to admit that in the eighth
century further progress was made by the Byzantine mentality towards a
better understanding of the question of the Roman primacy.
Many
Catholic scholars think that the idea of the Five Patriarchs governing
the Church was invented by the Byzantines in order to weaken or to
negate the primacy of the Bishop of Rome, because it suggests the idea
that all Patriarchs are equal in dignity. However, this is not so. The
documents which formed the basis for the growth of the pentarchic
idea—the Acts of the Sixth Oecumenical Council, Justinian's Novels, the
writings of Maximus the Confessor of the seventh century, of Theodore
the Studite of the eighth century, of other defenders of image worship,
and the Acts of the Ignatian Synod of 869-70—by no means imply the equal
dignity of all five Patriarchs. In many instances the special position
of the Roman Patriarch is stressed. We have to consider this problem
from the Byzantine point of view.34
The idea of five patriarchs expressed the universality of the Church
which at that time could not be fully represented by the size of the
Roman Empire, vast parts of which had been occupied by the Arabs.
Furthermore, the idea that the direction of Church affairs, especially
insofar as they concerned the definition and interpretation of Christ's
doctrine, should be reserved to the incumbents of the principal Sees
who, at the same time, represented the bishops of their respective
patriarchates, expresses the rights of the "sacerdotium" as opposed to
the interference of the "imperium." The Eastern Church had always fought
for her rights against the intervention of the Emperors, and she was
strongly supported in her fight by the West, as represented by the
Patriarch of Rome. In the Byzantine view the pentarchy suggested also
the idea of the infallibility of the Church in matters of doctrine, a
truth which is firmly believed by the Orthodox Church today.
The
fact that the idea of the pentarchy took such firm root in Byzantium in
the eighth and ninth centuries signifies that the Roman principle of
leadership in the Church—the apostolic character of the Church and of
her principal Sees as opposed to the principle of accommodation to
political changes—had gained considerable ground in Byzantium. With the
iconoclastic heresy the traditional concept of the "imperium" was
defeated in Byzantium and the Church affirmed most strongly her rights
for which she had been fighting so vigorously. It meant also the
definitive acceptance of the apostolic character of the See of
Constantinople by the Easterners, and this time this supposition was
strengthened by the spread of the legendary story of the apostolic
foundation of the See of Byzantium. This story, based on the apocryphal
Acts of St. Andrew in which Byzantium is mentioned, originated in the
eighth century and became popular, largely as the result of new lives of
St. Andrew written in the eighth and ninth centuries.
Even the
Patriarch Ignatius refers to St. Andrew, as well as to St. John, as his
predecessor. This indicates that the story of the apostolic foundation
of the Byzantine See by Andrew was already accepted in many circles. In
spite of this it was not yet officially accepted in the Church. The
Typicon of the Church of Hagia Sophia from the end of the ninth century,
which is an official document, does not mention the story when
recording the feast of St. Andrew, and neither does it list the feast of
St. Stachys, the legendary first Bishop of Byzantium, ordained by the
Apostle Andrew.35 In Byzantium and in the East this story was generally accepted only in the tenth century.
It
is believed that this story was used by the Patriarch Photius in a
treatise denying the primacy of Rome and exalting the high position of
the Byzantine See because it was founded by the brother of Peter, who
had been the first of the Apostles chosen by the Lord. The fact that
this story was not listed officially in the Typicon of the Patriarchal
church, although this Typicon was re-edited by Photius, should be
sufficient to show that Photius could not have written such a pamphlet.
Only in the twelfth and thirteenth centuries could such an attack on the
Roman primacy have been written on the basis of the legendary story of
Andrew.
Photius is regarded both by Catholics and Orthodox as a
staunch defier of the Roman primacy. This judgment needs radical
correction as the result of recent studies. First of all it should be
remembered that for the first time in Byzantine history Bishops who
later became supporters of Photius had appealed against the judgment of
Patriarch Ignatius, which they regarded as unjustified, to the first
Patriarch, the Bishop of Rome. There were, of course, other Byzantine
Patriarchs who had turned to Rome when unjustly condemned, such as St.
Chrysostom and St. Flavian, but in their cases doctrinal questions were
involved. The appellations of Gregory Asbestas and of his supporters
were made, however, in purely disciplinary matters. Documentary evidence
shows that Rome had begun to act as the supreme judge in this
disciplinary affair, and that the Byzantine prelates took advantage of a
decision of the Synod of Sardica (343) which had acknowledged the
supreme position of Rome and had established the right of appeal to the
Pope as representing the ultimate authority in the Church. The Canons of
this local Synod of Western prelates had not been accepted, so far, in
the East. This is the first time in which the Canon was invoked by the
Eastern Church.36
This is
important, but there is much more. When, in 861, Ignatius who had
resigned the patriarchal throne, but had been acclaimed as Patriarch by
certain enemies of the new Patriarch, Photius, canonically elected, was
judged by the Roman legates, the Byzantine prelates making declarations
which amounted to an official acceptance of the famous Canon of the
Synod of Sardica. First, let us stress the fact that the Byzantine
Church, in consenting to the judgment of her Patriarch by the legates of
the Pope, thus recognized Rome as the supreme tribunal of the Church in
disciplinary matters. It does not matter if the legates were or were
not authorized by Pope Nicholas I to pronounce judgment. The fact that
the Byzantine Church allowed them to do so is in itself eloquent enough.
At the beginning of the Synod the legates repeatedly proclaimed
that they were proceeding according to the Canons of Sardica, which
declared the Pope to be the ultimate authority in the Church. What
happened during the second meeting of the Synod is particularly
important. The legates said: "Believe us, brethren, it is because the
Fathers in the Council of Sardica decided that the Bishop of Rome has
power to reopen the cause of any bishop that we desire, with the
authority we have mentioned, to re-examine the case." The Bishop of
Laodicea, Theodore, the speaker of the Byzantine Church, said: "Our
Church rejoices at it and has no objection to it and is not offended by
it ("et ecclesia nostra gaudet in hoc et nullam habet contradictionem
aut tristitiam"). Subsequent events resulted in this Synod being
rejected by the Pope and its Acts forgotten. They were rediscovered in
1870, but it is certainly time that Church historians and canonists paid
more attention to these outstanding declarations.37
Furthermore,
Photius is severely criticized by Catholic theologians for having
altered the letters sent to him, to the Emperor Basil, and to the
Byzantine Church by Pope John VIII, which were read at the Council of
879-80 convoked to clear his name. It is true that in the Greek version
of the letters Photius omitted all that he considered misrepresented his
case but, after explanations, the legates consented to the changes
because the Patriarchal Chancellory retained in the Greek version some
passages from the Latin original which very clearly expressed the Pope's
ideas on the Roman primacy. Photius' versions contain also the
quotation of the famous passage of Matt. 16:19 on which the Pope based
"the power to bind and loose, and in the words of Jeremiah, to uproot
and to plant." Furthermore, Photius did not add the name of Paul to that
of Peter when the Pope, in the original version, spoke of the founder
of his See.38 This is proof that in
the ninth century the Byzantines abandoned the old custom which was
still in practice in the eighth century, as is clear from the Acts of
the Seventh Oecumenical Council, and had accepted the Roman custom of
attributing the foundation of the See of Rome to Peter alone.
It
is said also that Photius publicly denied the primacy and transferred
it to Byzantium in 867 and convoked a Council which had condemned Pope
Nicholas. Here, however, we have to distinguish between the person of
the Pope and the papacy. The Council condemned Nicholas I for his
neglect of the customs of the Byzantine Church and for his direct
interference in an internal affair which the Patriarch and his Bishops
regarded as unjustified. Evidently this was Photius' greatest mistake
for which the West never forgave him. But this does not mean that he
denied the Roman primacy. The same Synod acclaimed the German Emperor
Louis II as "basileus" and addressed a letter to him in which he was
asked to depose Pope Nicholas. When examined from the Byzantine point of
view this incident becomes very important. It shows that in Byzantium
there was still hope of unifying the Roman Empire, with an Emperor in
Constantinople and a co-Emperor in the West. Rome was the cradle of the
Roman Empire and the Byzantines called themselves not Greeks, but
Romans. As long as they called themselves Romans and as long as they
regarded Rome as the cradle of their Empire and its first capital, they
could not deny to Rome the first place which its Bishops claimed. The
fact that they desired to win over the Emperor of the West to the cause
of unity makes it clear that they did not wish to degrade the See of
Rome and her Bishop to an inferior status.39
When
we consider the events in Byzantium during the ninth century in this
new light, we must confess that contrary to what had been so far
believed, we can trace in these events and in the documents of this
period further progress towards a better understanding of the Roman
primacy. For the first time the right of appeal to the Bishop of Rome
against the judgment of a Patriarch was de facto and synodically
accepted. Other concessions granted to Rome at the Synod of 861 are
important and fully testify to the primacy of this See. On the other
hand, however, the Church of Constantinople very forcibly defended her
administrative autocracy and her own customs and insisted that, at the
Synod of 879-80, a canon be voted which confirmed to each Church her own
usages.
This was a good foundation on which to develop
relations between the two Churches. The history of the tetragamy
conflict provoked by the fourth marriage of Leo VI shows that the right
of appeal to the Roman See in disciplinary matters was still recognized
in Byzantium in the tenth century. Actually, the Emperor's appeal to
Rome, when Patriarch Nicholas Mysticus refused to allow his marriage,
must be interpreted in this light, although it was ignored by the
Patriarch and his followers. The request of Emperor Romanus I Lecapenus
for confirmation from Rome of the election of his young son
Theophylactus to patriarchal dignity was a feeble reflection of a
principle which had been more readily recognized by the Byzantines in
the ninth century.
We can stop our investigations at the
beginning of the eleventh century. The further development of the
relations between East and West were overshadowed by political events.
The restoration of the Western Roman Empire by the Saxon Kings, who
appointed their own Popes, increased the mistrust. And the development
of the mediaeval theory of the superiority of the spiritual over
temporal power, put into practice by Gregory VII and his reformers,
alienated the Byzantines even further, although the excommunication of
Patriarch Michael Cerularius by the Papal legates in 1054 did not as yet
mean a definite rupture.40 This
rupture widened during the Crusades and became definite after 1204 when
Constantinople was seized by the Latins. Then it was that hostility
against the claims of the Roman primacy were manifested in numerous
instances and in political writings. It is useless to reexamine them.
They were dictated by passion provoked by injustices inflicted by the
Latins on the Greeks during the Crusades and the replies of the Latins
were written often in the haughty spirit of beati possidentes.
If
we wish to find a basis on which to build anew a rapprochement between
Rome and the Orthodox Church, a rapprochement which will lead to union,
we must look for this in the first ten centuries, during which period
both Churches were still at one. In spite of misunderstandings, many of
which have been often exaggerated, we will find this basis, if we are
sincere, and both are willing to look for it and to accept it.
Francis Dvornik
ENDNOTES
1 The most extensive study on the organization of the primitive Church is still that published by K. Lubeck, Reichseinteilung und kirchliche Hierarchie des Orients bis znm Ausgange des vierten
Jahrhunderts (The political division of the Empire and the Church
Hierarchy to the end of the fourth century), published in Munster i. W.
in 1901. For more bibliographical indications, see my book The Idea of Apostolicity in Byzantium and the Legend of the Apostle Andrew, (Dumbarton Oaks Studies 4, Washington, D. C„ 1958), pp. 1-38.
2
The best documentary evidence for this development is found in the
letters of St. Cyprian, Bishop of Carthage, especially letters 4, 17,
56, 59, 64, 67, 70, 72, ed. G. Hartel in Corpus Script. Eccles. Latin., vol. 3, part 2, pp. 472, 523, 649, 678, 717, 735, 766, 775. See my study, "Emperors, Popes and General Councils," Dumbarton Oaks Papers, vol. 6, pp. 3 ff. Cf. also my book The Ecumenical Councils (The Twentieth Century Encyclopedia of Catholicism, vol. 82, New York, 1961), pp. 9 ff.
3 Cf. F. Lanzoni, "Le diocesi d'ltalia dalle origini al principo del secolo VII," in Studi e Testi, vol. 35 (1927), pp. 1016 ff.
4 Irenaeus, Contra Haereses, bk. 3, chap. 3, para. 3, Migne, Patres Graeci, vol. 7, cols. 849 ff.
5 Cf. B. H. Streeter, The Primitive Church (London, 1929), pp. 188-195; E. Milland, "Le developpement de l'idee de succession apostolique," in Revue d'his. et de philos. relig., vol. 34 (1954), pp. 20 ff.
6 De Pudicitia, chap. 21, Corp. Script. Eccles. Latin, vol. 20, p. 270.
7 Chronographus anni 354, ed. Th. Mommsen in Monum. Germaniae Histor. Auctores Antiq., vol. 9, p. 73.
8 See the documentary evidence in P. Batiffol's Cathedra Petri (Paris, 1938), pp. 151 ff.
9
On the rivalry between Constantinople and Alexandria, cf. N. H. Baynes,
"Alexandria and Constantinople. A Study in Ecclesiastical Diplomacy,"
in his Byzantine Studies and Other Essays (London, 1955), pp. 97-115. Cf. also the concise history of the first Councils in my book. The Ecumenical Councils, pp. 17-31.
10 Mansi, Conciliorum ampliss. Collectio, vol. 6, col. 204, letter 106.
11 For details, see Das Konsil von Chalcedon,
ed. A. Grillmeir, H. Bacht (Wurzburg, 1953), vol. 2, especially the
excellent study by E. Herman, pp. 459-490 and T. O. Martin on the
twenty-eighth Canon, ibid., pp. 433-458.
12 See, for details and bibliography, my book The Idea of Apostolicity, pp. 52 ff.
13 Cf. F. X. Murphy, Peter Speaks through Leo. The Council of Chalcedon, (Washington, Cath. Univ. Press, 1952).
14 Mansi, op. cit.. vol. 7, col. 444. Cf. C. H. Turner, Ecclesiae occidentalis Monumenta Iuris Antiquissima (Oxford, 1899-1929), vol. 1, pp. 103, 121.
15 See their letters in Mansi, op. cit., vol. 6, cols. 146-156, 168 ff.; 171 ff.
18 Mansi, op. cit., vol. 7, cols. 361, 365.
17 The Pope's letters to the Emperor and the Patriarch Anatolius in Mansi, op. cit., vol. 6, cols. 196 ff.; 204 ff.
18 See, for documentary evidence, my book The Idea of Apostolicity, pp. 39 ff.
19 Published by V. N, Benesevic, Kanoniceskij Sbornik XIV titulov (St. Petersburg, 1903), p. 155. It was also approved by the Council in Trullo (692), Mansi, op. cit., vol. ii, col. 960.
20 Canon Five of the Council, Mansi, op. cit.,
vol. 22, cols. 290, 291. However, already the Fathers of the Ignatian
Council (869-870) when formulating Canon Twenty-one gave precedence to
the Patriarch of Constantinople before Eastern Patriarchs. Pope Hadrian
II did not protest against this canon (Mansi, vol. 16, col. 174). The
canon is preserved only in the Latin translation of the Acts made by
Anastasius Bibliothecarius.
21 The main documents concerning the
Acacian Schism are published by E. Schwartz, "Publizistische Sammlungen
zum Acacianischen Schisma" in the Abhandlungen of the Bavarian Academy, Phil-hist. Class 1934, pp. 161- 262. The papal letters in Migne, Patrol. Lat., vol. 58, 59, new critical edition in the so-called Collectio Avellana, in Collectio Script. Eccl. Latin., vol. 35, ed. by O. Gunther. See, for details and bibliography, my book The Idea of Apostolicity, pp. 106-137.
22 Migne, Patr. Lat., vol. 63, col. 393 ff., Collectio Avellana, pp. 520 ff.
23 Migne, op. cit., cols. 494 ff., Collectio Avellana, pp. 652-654.
24 Corpus Iuris Civilis, Novellae, vol. 3, ed. R. Schoell, W. Kroll, p. 655.
25 Migne, Patres Graeci, vol. 137, cols. 321C, 325, 485-489.
26 Liber Pontificalis,
ed. L. Duchesne, vol. 1, p. 316: "Hic optinuit apud Focatem principem
ut sedis apostolica beati Petri apostoli caput esset omnium ecclesiarum,
quia ecclesia Constantinopolitana prima se omnium ecclesiarum
scribebat."
27 Pp. 138-299.
28 F. Dvornik, The Idea of Apostolicity, pp. 238 ff.
29
In the Acts of the Synod of 861 which condemned Ignatius, the latter
declared: "I am also in possession of the throne of the Apostle John and
of Andrew who was the first to be called Apostle," Wolf von Glanvell, Die Kanonessammlung des Kardinals Deusdedit (Paderborn, 1905), p. 603.
30 Vita S. Stephani Junioris, Migne, Patres Graeci,
vol. 100, col. 1144. He mentions also the other patriarchs, but when
speaking of the Pope, he adds: "according to the canonical prescriptions
religious affairs cannot be defined without the Roman Pope."
31 On the origin and use of this title and on Greek monasteries in Rome, see my book Les Legendes de Constantin et de Methode vues de Byzance (Prague, 1933), pp. 295-300, 286-290.
32 Letter 129, Migne, Patres Graeci, vol. 99, cols. 1417, 1420.
33 See the Acts of the Council in Mansi, op. cit.. vol. XII, cols. 1056 ff. (Second session of the Council.)
34 See, for details, my book The Idea of Apostolicity, pp. 163, 168, 235 ff, 275 ff.
35 This important document was published by A. Dmitrijevskij in his Opisanie liturg. rukopisej (Description of liturgical manuscripts), vol. I, Typika (Kiev, 1895), p. 27.
36 See, for details and documentary evidence, my book The Photian Schism, pp. 16 ff.
37
An extract from the Acts was preserved in the eleventh century
canonical collection of Cardinal Deusdedit. Critical edition by Wolf von
Glanvell, op. cit., pp. 603-10. Deusdedit's collection contains also a summary of the Photian Council of 879-80, ibid., pp. 612 ff.
38 Cf. the new critical edition of the letters in Monumenta Germaniae historica, Epistolae, vol. 7, pp. 166 ff. Mansi, op. cit., vol. 7, cols. 396 ff.
39 Cf. my latest studies on Photius: The Patriarch Photius in the Light of Recent Research (Munich, 1958), pp. 30 ff. and "Patriarch Photius, Scholar and Statesman," Classical Folia, vol. 14 (1960), pp. 19 ff.
40 See the unbiased study by S. Runciman, The Eastern Schism (Oxford, 1955), pp. 28-54.
